Music as a Symptom of Transnationalism: From Africa to Afro-American
Intro: Creative Practices as a Response to Transnational Identity Crises
The theory of post-national culture suggests that culture transcends its borders as its people do. However, migration can result in the suppressing of one’s culture and effectively their silencing. Just as in Danticat’s, The Dew Breaker, the torturer silences people ‘so that their victims can never speak of them again,’(p65) so too can a new culture stifle one’s origins. The concept of voicelessness is further explored in this novel in the language barrier in ‘Seven’ and the literal removal of voice in ‘Water Child’.
It is a function of creative practices to challenge such feelings of voicelessness and respond to situations in which one’s culture is quashed by a new environment. Indeed, Ken Saro Wiwa explains that ‘art is functional, particularly as a tool for addressing the social ills.’(Eke. P88)
Music in particular can act as an outlet for people and their culture to be present in their new environment. In The Dew Breaker, the Funeral Singer carries her songs and part of her heritage to New York through her recital of ‘Brother Timonie’. Kiwan and Meinhof also give the example of the influx of North African musicians into Paris who used their newfound freedom within the new city to express their art. (Kiwan & Meinhof. p87)
Gibert explains that migrant musicians are often caught in a matrix of conflicting influences: ‘the artists’ own musical pleasure and desires; their professional constraints and opportunities; and the social, historical and personal context of their migration experiences.’ She then goes on to explain that the artists have adapted to overcome such tensions and learnt how to use it to their advantage. (Gibert, p92)
Therefore, music can be seen as a symptom, or manifestation, of the transnational identity. It provides a way to maintain a sense of one’s origins and rebel against the conformities that a new culture would impose upon an immigrant. It allows the creation of a social niche for their new identity which is an amalgamation of both cultures.
Transnationalism and Music in Relation to African-Americans:
African-Americans have a potent history of having to adapt to oppression and the loss of voice. As Gibert explains, they are particularly influenced by the ‘social, historical and personal context of their migration experiences.’ In light of this, they maintained an attachment to their origins through music as well as using it as a means by which to respond to the oppression they underwent. From the early days of slave-song, to modern day rap, musicians of African descent have established an identity within their music which adapts to environment but stays true to their roots.
It is a function of creative practices to challenge such feelings of voicelessness and respond to situations in which one’s culture is quashed by a new environment. Indeed, Ken Saro Wiwa explains that ‘art is functional, particularly as a tool for addressing the social ills.’(Eke. P88)
Music in particular can act as an outlet for people and their culture to be present in their new environment. In The Dew Breaker, the Funeral Singer carries her songs and part of her heritage to New York through her recital of ‘Brother Timonie’. Kiwan and Meinhof also give the example of the influx of North African musicians into Paris who used their newfound freedom within the new city to express their art. (Kiwan & Meinhof. p87)
Gibert explains that migrant musicians are often caught in a matrix of conflicting influences: ‘the artists’ own musical pleasure and desires; their professional constraints and opportunities; and the social, historical and personal context of their migration experiences.’ She then goes on to explain that the artists have adapted to overcome such tensions and learnt how to use it to their advantage. (Gibert, p92)
Therefore, music can be seen as a symptom, or manifestation, of the transnational identity. It provides a way to maintain a sense of one’s origins and rebel against the conformities that a new culture would impose upon an immigrant. It allows the creation of a social niche for their new identity which is an amalgamation of both cultures.
Transnationalism and Music in Relation to African-Americans:
African-Americans have a potent history of having to adapt to oppression and the loss of voice. As Gibert explains, they are particularly influenced by the ‘social, historical and personal context of their migration experiences.’ In light of this, they maintained an attachment to their origins through music as well as using it as a means by which to respond to the oppression they underwent. From the early days of slave-song, to modern day rap, musicians of African descent have established an identity within their music which adapts to environment but stays true to their roots.
Timeline of African Music:
From Africa to America
‘Though stripped naked and forcibly taken away to a new world, African slaves took with them memories of a rich African culture and tradition including music.’ ( Austin. P1)
The new slaves were subjected to the oppression of the white slave drivers, but also the culture shock of the new world. In such context, a new identity arose which amalgamated remnants of old lives and new.
However, many aspects of their traditional African musical heritage remained:
Call and response, audience participation and improvisation were all carried from African tradition.
Austin identifies fourteen categories of song in African music: (1) Historical (2) Social control (3) Insult (4) Obscene (5) Praise (6) Children’s (7) Funeral (8) Work (9) War (10) Humorous (11) Communication (12) Women’s (13) Philosophical and (14) Ritual songs
Work songs - became particularly popular among slaves working in the fields. The rhythms helped in their work and their voices were a means by which to express themselves in the oppressive situation of slavery.
The new slaves were subjected to the oppression of the white slave drivers, but also the culture shock of the new world. In such context, a new identity arose which amalgamated remnants of old lives and new.
However, many aspects of their traditional African musical heritage remained:
Call and response, audience participation and improvisation were all carried from African tradition.
Austin identifies fourteen categories of song in African music: (1) Historical (2) Social control (3) Insult (4) Obscene (5) Praise (6) Children’s (7) Funeral (8) Work (9) War (10) Humorous (11) Communication (12) Women’s (13) Philosophical and (14) Ritual songs
Work songs - became particularly popular among slaves working in the fields. The rhythms helped in their work and their voices were a means by which to express themselves in the oppressive situation of slavery.
Swing Low Sweet Chariot – finds its origins in the work songs of slaves in the Americas and can now be heard emanating from English rugby fans who have since adopted it as their anthem ------------------------------------> This clip actually shows the English fans drowning out the visiting team, an illustration of native culture dominating over migrant identity - ironic that the song was initially sung in order for the slaves to feel less dominated over by the new culture and white owners. |
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Music as rebellion –against white slave owners, and the new, silent identity that context would impose on them Wade in the Water - carried a hidden escape plan to cross a river in order to throw pursuing dogs off their scent. Go Down Moses - slave owners took Negro Spiritual songs such as this to be a sign of slaves converting to Christianity, however, they are in fact signs of music as a form of rebellion against their oppressors and including lyrics like: ‘Let my people go.’ Drums and rhythms – to co-ordinate uprisings, and communicate – the polyrhythms were thought wild and unsophisticated when in fact they were quite the opposite -----------------------------------> |
Wade In The Water - also originates from slavesong but has since been subject to many different interpretations and musical styles: |
A new era of black music emerged with the 19th century - a century of great musical output and the advancement of civil rights.
Ragtime:
Swing: ‘Duke Ellington composed pieces that were consciously grounded in the African-American heritage, in its rhythms, melodies, and harmonies, so that the musical essence arose from the hardships and triumphs of the African-American people. In his own words: “Dissonance is our way of life in America. We are something apart, yet an integral part.”’ (Sullivan. P22) Furthermore, Seamus Heaney's poem, 'Strange Fruit', also alludes to Holiday's song in response to the terrible violence he witnessed in Ireland.‘Murdered, forgotten, nameless, terrible’ Heaney's poem and Weems' pictures are further examples of how creative practices are a means by which to respond to social problems. Duke Ellington’s description of black people being ‘Something apart’, illustrates the concept of ‘separate but equal’ and the Jim Crow laws which cemented African-American’s existence as Other. The civil rights movement in the 50s revived the concept of using music as a form of rebellion. |
Jazz: ‘An African musician improvises freely on his instrument and vocals as well. In an African drum ensemble, for example, the master drummer improvises freely over a stable rhythmic section. Improvisation is a major feature of Jazz.’ (Austin. P9) Blues: ‘flowed out of the bitter hardship following the Civil War and the disheartening realization that although slaves were granted emancipation, African-American equality was by no means also guaranteed. Blues vocals vented African-American frustration and disillusionment.’ (Sullivan. p26) Strange Fruit by Billie Holiday (originally a poem by Abel Meeropel) criticised racism and the lynching of blacks in America. <------------------- Carrie Mae Weems’ exhibition, From Here I Saw What Happened And I Cried, examines black history and the oppression they dealt with. The picture below alludes to Holiday's song, Ellington's music, and the social changes which led to the creation of such music. |
Go down, Kennedy
Way down in Albany Tell ol’ Pritchett To let my people go Soul:
‘James Brown, often regarded as the ‘God father’ of Soul. His stylistic dance steps, yells, groans, moans and stuttering gave Soul a distinctive African identity’ (Austin. P6) ----------------------------------------> Sources:
Austin, Emiuli. AFRO-AMERICAN MUSIC AND THE AFRICAN IDENTITY: A HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY ANALYSIS- unilorin.edu.ng/publications/emielu/AFROamerican%20music.doc Eke, Maureen. Sozaboy: A Novel in Rotten English Gibert. Music and Arts in Action/Gibert 2011 | ISSN: 1754-7105 | Page 92 http://musicandartsinaction.net/index.php/maia/article/view/transnationalties) Kiwan. Meinhof. Cultural Globalization and Music: African Artists in Transnational Networks Sullivan, Megan. African-American Music as Rebellion: From Slavesong to Hip-Hop http://www.arts.cornell.edu/knight_institute/publicationsprizes/discoveries/discoveriesspring2001/03sullivan.pdf) |
This song revived the old Negro Spiritual, Go Down Moses
It’s message was much more obvious than those of its slave song origins. It is in protest of the mass arrests carried out by Pritchett in his attempt to subvert de-segregation. Hip-hop:
born in New York from Jazz and Soul heritage. Featured lots of drums and rhythmic beats, which shows how important rhythm still was to African musicians in the 80s and 90s, several hundred years after being uprooted from their home country and culture. <------------------------------------ Rap: ‘Rap artist Ice Cube rhetorically exposes the attitude of many young African-Americans when he asks: “Do I have to sell me a whole lot of crack For a decent shelter and clothes on my back?”’(Sullivan) Rap music was born out of the lower class, stereotypically black areas of New York, like the Bronx. The artists are seen to ask similar questions about equality as they did decades ago, and indeed hundreds of years ago. There are still suppressed cultures and they use can music to respond to this, and use creative practices as the platform on which to be heard. |